How Minority Voters Helped Obama Win Reelection

Americans from ethnic minority groups voted en masse to help  President Barack Obama win reelection. While just 39% of white Americans voted for Obama on Election Day 2012, staggering amounts of blacks, Hispanics and Asians backed the president at the ballot box. The reasons for this are multifaceted, but minority voters largely supported the president because they felt that Republican candidate Mitt Romney could not relate to them. A national exit poll revealed that 81% of Obama supporters said the quality that mattered most to them in a presidential candidate is whether he â€Å"cares about people like me.† Romney, born into wealth and privilege, apparently didn’t fit the bill. The growing disconnect between Republicans and the diverse American electorate wasn’t lost on political analyst Matthew Dowd. He remarked on ABC News after the election that the Republican Party no longer reflects U.S. society, using a television show analogy to make his point. â€Å"Republicans right now are a ‘Mad Men’ party in a ‘Modern Family’ world,† he said. The rise in minority voters reveals how much the United States has changed from 25 years ago when the electorate was 90% white. If the demographics had not changed, its highly unlikely that Obama would have made it to the White House. Loyal African Americans Blacks may be the second-largest minority group in the United States, but their share of the electorate is larger than any other community of color. On Election Day 2012, African Americans made up 13% of U.S. voters. Ninety-three percent of these voters supported Obama’s reelection bid, down just 2% from 2008. While the African  American community has been accused of favoring Obama precisely because he’s black, the group has a long history of loyalty to Democratic political candidates. John Kerry, who lost the 2004 presidential race to George W. Bush, won 88% of the black vote. Given that the black electorate was 2% larger in 2012 than it was in 2004, the group’s devotion to Obama undoubtedly gave him an edge. Latinos Break Voting Record More Latinos than ever before turned out at the polls on Election Day 2012. Hispanics made up 10% of the electorate. Seventy-one percent of these Latinos backed President Obama for reelection. Latinos likely backed Obama overwhelmingly over Romney because they supported the president’s Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) as well as his decision to stop deporting undocumented immigrants who arrived in the U.S. as children. Republicans widely vetoed the  legislation known as the DREAM Act, which would have not only protected such immigrants from deportation but also put them on the path to citizenship. Republican opposition to immigration reform has alienated Latino voters, 60% of whom say they know an unauthorized immigrant, according to a Latino Decisions poll taken on the eve of the 2012 election. Affordable health care is also a major concern of the Latino community. Sixty-six percent of Hispanics say the government should ensure that the public has access to health care, and 61% support Obamacare, according to Latino Decisions. Rising Influence of Asian Americans Asian Americans make up a small (3%) but a growing percentage of the U.S. electorate. An estimated 73% of Asian Americans voted for President Obama, Voice of America determined on Nov. 7 using preliminary exit poll data. Obama has strong ties to the Asian community. Hes not only a native of Hawaii but grew up partly in Indonesia and has a half-Indonesian sister. These aspects of his background likely resonated with some Asian Americans.   While Asian American voters don’t yet wield the influence that black and Latino voters do, expect them to be a bigger factor in the next presidential election.  The Pew Research Center reported in 2012 that the Asian American community has actually outpaced Hispanics as the fastest-growing immigrant group in the country. In the 2016 presidential election, Asian Americans are expected to make up 5% of voters, if not more.

The Individual Versus His Environment in The Stranger and...

The Individual Versus His Environment in The Stranger and Grendel Due to the multifaceted nature of literature, analysis thereof is prone to generalization. One of the most grievous generalizations oft encountered involves failing to distinguish between a character and the novel it inhabits. Take John Gardener’s Grendel and Albert Camus’s The Stranger, for instance. It’s far too easy, when analyzing for dominant ideologies, to slap them both with the label of existentialism and be done with it. However, closer scrutiny indicates that whilst both Meursault and Grendel are existential heroes, Grendel, unlike Meursault, exists in a solipsistic universe that runs contrary to his ideology and thusly never experiences the catharsis that†¦show more content†¦In Camus’s The Stranger, we have the platonic ideal of a book designed to promote a certain philosophy. In John Gardener’s Grendel, however, the message is not so clear-cut. Grendel, the ill-f ated anti-hero of the John Gardener novel which bears his name, acts primarily in the manner of an existentialist hero. He embraces his alienation, spending the majority of his time alone; he frequently evokes the absurd to mock those who would try and bring false meaning to a meaningless world; and though he meets characters who embody different ideologies, all trying to influence him towards one philosophy or another, his final whispered curse has a heavily existential flavor. But though Grendel may be an existentialist hero, Grendel is a hostile environment for existentialism to thrive; you see, Grendel does not live in an existential world, like Meursault does. Grendel’s universe is solipsistic, and because he never embraces this fact, there can be no catharsis for Grendel. Though solipsism and existentialism may appear similar at first glance, closer inspection reveals them to be philosophical oil and water. For conclusive proof that these ideologies do not play well tog ether, we need only recall the previously-quoted passage from Existentialism is a Humanism, â€Å"The other is indispensable to my existence, and equally so to any knowledge I can have of myself.† If this is so, then living in a solipsistic universe

Community Based Disaster Risk Management free essay sample

Items such as emergency lights become flesh-devouring acid pools, yet only appearing as wet spots n walls. The severe dust, which is thick and annoying, contains every disease that has been safely buried for the past few hundred years Just waiting to find a nice warm moist home in your lungs. Your only defense from the hostile environment, in which you, the rescuer, will be thrust into, is the personal protection equipment. This equipment must be kept with the rescuer at all times, no matter what! The minimum personal protection gear is: Hard Hat preferably a climbing / rescue helmet. Safety Goggles will be worn for long periods, must be comfortable. Work Gloves at least double leather. Dust Mask preferably cartridge type respirator. Sturdy boots must provide ankle support. Coveralls good quality to provide another protection barrier. Whistle for reliable communication of distress. Duct Tape for securing hazards and everything else imaginable. First Aid Kit compact kit with large pressure dressing, minor wound care, disposable resuscitation shield, etc. Flashlight good quality with lots of batteries and spare bulbs Flagging tape marking routes, hazards etc. This is the minimum gear [see appendix] required. A small fanny pack will probably be required to keep the gear handy and available. The Rules: Some rules of conduct have been created to promote survival in structural collapse. But these are not replacements for sound rescue knowledge and competent training. A short list of rules and explanations follows. The Do Rules turn off the electricity. After a structural collapse the integrity of a buildings electrical system will be severely compromised. What was ground may now be hot, breakers wont blow and electrical fires can start at any time. Not to mention live wires will be hanging everywhere. Learn how to shut off all types breakers. There are many types of systems but here re a few guidelines: -Never look directly at the switch / breaker as you turn it off, the possible arc may blind you. Use your non-dominant hand in case a charge attempts to energize your arm, turning it into a Jelly-like instrument for some time. Place your other [dominant] hand behind your back to prevent completing a circuit to ground, a very nasty situation indeed. Turn off ALL local breakers [the small ones] prior to shutting tontine main breakers. This prevents a massive surge to current occurring when the main breakers are turned off thus reducing the chances of arc burns and/ r electrocution . Ensure the ground / floor youre standing on is dry and clear of debris, if not make it so before touching the breakers. Try at all costs not to touch, the actual metal of the box the breaker[s] are housed in. If you can not avoid touching the housing [I. E.. To open housing door] dont do it with a bare hand. check for flammable gases in the electrical area prior to throwing any switch. DO Turn Off The Water. Learn the many types of water main valves. It is vital to turn the water off as soon as possible, as the lower parts of a building may have become holding ankhs with trapped victims being drowned in a water-filled coffin. Turn the water off as close to the city main as possible [at curbside] in case the supply from the street to the building is ruptured. This may soon create a never-ending lake attempting to swallow the very s tructure you are about to penetrate. Finding the correct tool [many types] to shut off the main will be difficult, one may have to be improvised. The direction to turn the shut off is clockwise, but turn it very slowly to prevent a water hammer from developing. A water hammer may rupture a weak city main further up the line. DO Turn Off The Gas. Turn off all gas / fuel supplies to the building as close to the supply main as possible [street level]. -Use a non-ferrous wrench [non-sparking] designed for the purpose. Most gas valves are turned off by turning the valve 90 degrees, this places the straight of the valve against the direction of the gas pipe. DO Disconnect Telephone Cables. The Telephone Company will probably hate you but damaged lines may be incorrectly energize, or worse, charged via the power lines. This may lead to electrical hazards and fires in the structure. Use extreme caution with the telephone connections, have a qualified errors check for dangerous voltages p rior to getting the wire cutters out. Put up a large sign indicating the lines have been disconnected and where. Discuss the operation of disconnection with the Rescue Chief prior to disconnection in case the telephone system is been used to communicate to the trapped persons in the building. Keep in mind risk verses benefit. DO Mark Routes. Mark all routes to safety [triage area] for both rescue team and walking wounded. In case of structural stability loss, a well-marked route, as free from hazards as possible, will become a life line. A spray can of bright paint will prove invaluable in marking and labeling the route. Use different colors for different teams. DO Mark Hazards. Identify all hazards, possible hazards, and unknown wet spots, etc. , and mark them well. Use spray paint and flagging tape, lots of it, to prevent anyone from unexpectedly walking into hazards. Log all hazards in the teams notes so that in the 3rd rescue stage the teams will be aware of them. Eliminate any hazard if feasible, such as padding sharp protruding objects or duct taping fractured windows. DO Check All Doors. Check all doors all the time. The structure may shift during the course of the rescue so check the door overtime before attempting to open it. Check for heat, use the back o f your hand. Check the sound of the door, tap it if it doesnt have a dull thud sound its probably loaded [load bearing]. Opening it could cause the load from the floor above to meet you on your level so to speak. If the door is loaded mark it and log it as a hazard. Practice door checks on loaded and unloaded doors regularly, it may save your life. If a previously unloaded door becomes loaded, reassess the structure and prepare to rapidly evacuate. DO Mark Room Corners. Spray paint the floor and ceiling corners of safe and possibly unsafe rooms. If the structure shifts the paint will show movement. The practice of marking the corners acts as a DANGER warning but must be checked on a regular intervals for it to work. Assign someone to log and check all markings at set time periods. DO Check Closed Air Spaces. All closed air spaces [basements, manholes, etc. ] must !!!! Be checked with an Air Sampler {sniffed} to ensure there is enough Oxygen and dangerous gases are not present. If an Air sampler is not available, ventilate the area with fans and use extreme caution. If the above can not be carried out then only proceed with Self Contained Breathing Apparatus [S. C. B. A. ]. After a good shake trapped gases will find their way into closed tart spaces.

The Omitted Essays - English-language Films, British Films

The Omitted Sherrie McIntyre ENG 321 3/31/00 The Omitted When watching the Branagh version of Much Ado About Nothing, I tended to realize lines had been omitted from the movie. I then got further into the movie and some of the lines that were ones that foreshadow what had happened in the text. The purpose of this paper will show that lines left out of the movie were in some way essential to character development and aided in the movie's plot confusion. The analysis took several watchings to create a vivid view of what lines were missing and why. So, as I was watching the movie I marked which lines were not spoken. This approximated to 1329. Wow! 1329 out of 2712 (give or take a few lines) were missing. Now I asked myself how is anyone going to get the full feel for this play, if there is 49% missing. Half an answer would be that the choices to leave out certain parts were to down play a character's attitude or behavior. Or I could be way off base, and producers could have wanted to just save time and money in producing, editing, etc. It is the first choice I would like to consider. When reviewing the lines left out, the first big chunk is in act 1 scene 1. Beatrice is describing Bene*censored*, In our last con-/ flict four of his five wits went halting off, and now/ is the whole man governed with one; (1.1,62). Which creates a dynamic that gives you a precursor to the rest of the play. This precursor being that Beatrice and Bene*censored* fight constantly, not like old friends, but old foes. The word choice that Beatrice gives in the opening of this play gives us that overall feeling that the two just do not see eye to eye. Hence, when they spar for the first time, 60 lines later, Beatrice seems a little more outspoken than is perceived, due to the omission of the lines. Bene*censored* comes off like a prince trying to defend himself. The lines make the sense of two friends giving each other a hard time, but the text gives them a sting. The omitted lines that help characterize the strength of words are needed for the sting to be apparent, which just lacks in th e movie. The Branagh version showed lots of areas where Bene*censored* was coming off as doing nothing to spite anyone, which allowed Branagh to make Bene*censored* a better character than is portrayed in the text. The next major spot in the text that is omitted from the movie is all of act 1 scene 2. This was an unusual choice, because this is where Leonato is shown to know that his daughter has a suitor. The wrong name is given, but still is an edited moment of comedy that allows a reader to know what is going on in the text, and who knows what and how. The movie did not let you know that Leonato was indeed aware of a suitor until he says Daughter, remember what I told you. If the/ Prince do solicit you in that kind, you know your/ answer.(2.1,65). When reading the text, this wrong information about the Prince being the suitor instead of Claudio being the suitor (the Prince just acting in Claudio's name), is revealed in the scene that is mentioned earlier. It would help to make the comic nature of these lines unfold, instead of the confusion that comes about when the movie has the viewer confused to the textual facts of what is happening. Also it is the first time that somebody overhears (not es) a conversation and gives out wrong information, but this is also omitted in the prior mentioned scene. Consequently when people start to spy, it looks uncommon for the movie, but the text gives the notions of spying from the start. The next major sets of lines that are not used in the movie are ones that foreshadow what is to happen in the rest of the play. Borachio has a set of lines in act2 scene3 that tell all about having Margaret in a chamber window having sex with Borachio using the name of Hero. The movie omitting

The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act in South Africa

The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act in South Africa The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (no. 55 of 1949) was one of the first pieces of apartheid legislation enacted after the National Party came to power in South Africa in 1948. The Act banned marriages between â€Å"Europeans and non-Europeans,† which, in the language of the time, meant that white people could not marry people of other races. It also made it a criminal offense for a marriage officer to perform an interracial marriage ceremony. Justification and Aims of the Laws The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act did not, however, prevent other so-called mixed marriages between non-white people. Unlike some other key pieces of apartheid legislation, this act was designed to protect the â€Å"purity† of the white race rather than the separation of all races. Mixed marriages were rare in South Africa before 1949, averaging fewer than 100 per year between 1943 and 1946, but the National Party explicitly legislated to keep non-whites from infiltrating the dominant white group by intermarriage. Both the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act and the Immorality Act of 1957 were based on then-active United States segregation laws. It was not until 1967 that the first U.S. Supreme Court case rejecting miscegenation laws (Loving v. Virginia) was decided. Apartheid Marriage Law Opposition While most white South Africans agreed that mixed marriages were undesirable during apartheid, there was opposition to making such marriages illegal. In fact, a similar act had been defeated in the 1930s when the United Party was in power. It was not that the United Party  supported interracial marriages. Most were vehemently opposed to any interracial relations. Led by Prime Minister Jan Christiaan Smuts (1919–1924 and 1939–1948), the United Party thought that the strength of public opinion against such marriages was sufficient for preventing them. They also said there was no need to legislate interracial marriages since so few happened anyway, and as South African sociologist and historian Johnathan Hyslop has reported, some even stated that making such a law insulted white women by suggesting they would marry black men. Religious Opposition to the Act The strongest opposition to the act, however, came from the churches. Marriage, many clerics argued, was a matter for God and churches, not the state. One of the key concerns was that the Act declared that any mixed marriages â€Å"solemnized† after the Act was passed would be nullified. But how could that work in churches that did not accept divorce? A couple could be divorced in the eyes of the state and married in the eyes of the church. These arguments were not enough to stop the bill from passing, but a clause was added declaring that if a marriage was entered into in good faith but later determined to be â€Å"mixed† then any children born to that marriage would be considered legitimate even though the marriage itself would be annulled. Why Didn’t the Act Prohibit All Interracial Marriages? The primary fear driving the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act was that poor, working-class white women were marrying people of color. In actual fact, very few were. In the years before the act, only roughly 0.2–0.3% of marriages by Europeans were to people of color, and that number was declining. In 1925 it had been 0.8%, but by 1930 it was 0.4%, and by 1946 it was 0.2%. The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act was designed to protect white political and social dominance by preventing a handful of people from blurring the line between white society and everyone else in South Africa. It also showed that the National Party was going to fulfill its promises to protect the white race, unlike its political rival, the United Party, which many thought had been too lax on that issue. Anything taboo, however, can become attractive, just by virtue of being forbidden. While the Act was rigidly enforced, and the police endeavored to root out all illicit interracial relations, there were always a few people who thought that crossing that line was well worth the risk of detection. Repeal By 1977, opposition to these laws was growing in the still white-led South African government, dividing members of the liberal party during the government of Prime Minister John Vorster (Prime Minister from 1966–1978, president from 1978–1979). A total of 260 people were convicted under the law in 1976 alone. Cabinet members were divided; liberal members backed laws offering power-sharing arrangements to nonwhites while others, including Vorster himself, decidedly did not.  Apartheid was in its painfully slow decline. The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, along with the related Immorality Acts which prohibited extra-marital interracial sexual relations, was repealed on June 19, 1985. The set of apartheid laws were not abolished in South Africa until the early 1990s; a democratically elected government was finally established in 1994.   Sources Curbs on Interracial Sex and Marriage Divide South African Leaders. The New York Times, July 8, 1977.  Dugard, John. Human Rights and the South African Legal Order. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978.Furlong, Patrick Joseph.  The Mixed Marriages Act: a historical and theological study.  Cape Town: University of Cape Town, 1983.Higgenbotham, A. Leon Jr., and Barbara K. Kopytof. Racial purity and interracial sex in the law of colonial and antebellum Virginia. Georgetown Law Review 77(6):1967-2029. (1988–1989).  Hyslop, Jonathan, â€Å"White Working-Class Women and the Invention of Apartheid: Purified Afrikaner Nationalist Agitation for Legislation against Mixed Marriages, 1934-9† Journal of African History 36.1 (1995) 57–81.Jacobson, Cardell K., Acheampong Yaw Amoateng, and Tim B. Heaton. Inter-Racial Marriages in South Africa. Journal of Comparative Family Studies 35.3 (2004): 443-58.Sofer, Cyril. â€Å"Some Aspects of  Inter-racial  Marriage s in South Africa, 1925–46,†Ã‚  Africa,  19.3  (July 1949): 193. Wallace Hoad, Neville, Karen Martin, and Graeme Reid (eds.). Sex and Politics in South Africa: The Equality Clause / Gay Lesbian Movement / the Anti-Apartheid Struggle. Juta and Company Ltd, 2005.Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, 1949. (1949). Wikisource.

Identifying Independent and Dependent Clauses

Identifying Independent and Dependent Clauses An independent clause (also known as a main clause) is a word group that has both a subject and a verb and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent clause (also known as a subordinate clause) is a word group that has both a subject and a verb but cant stand alone as a sentence. A sentence may consist of a single independent clause, multiple independent clauses linked by a conjunction, or a combination of independent and dependent clauses. The key to distinguishing a dependent clause is this: a dependent clause adds information to the independent clause. Perhaps it gives context about time, place, or identity, perhaps it answers why? the action in the independent/main clause is happening, perhaps it clarifies something from the main clause. Whatever the case may be, the information contained in that clause is in support of the the main clause. This exercise will help you recognize the difference between an independent clause and a dependent clause. Instructions: For each item below, write independent if the group of words is an independent clause or dependent if the group of words is a dependent clause. The details in this exercise have been loosely adapted from the essay Bathing in a Borrowed Suit, by Homer Croy. ____________________I went to the beach last Saturday____________________I borrowed an old bathing suit from a friend____________________because I had forgotten to bring my own bathing suit____________________while the waist on my borrowed suit would have been tight on a doll____________________my friends were waiting for me to join them____________________when suddenly they stopped talking and looked away____________________after some rude boys came up and began to make insulting remarks____________________I abandoned my friends and ran into the water____________________my friends invited me to play in the sand with them____________________although I knew that I had to come out of the water eventually____________________a large dog chased me down the beach____________________as soon as I got out of the water Answers independentindependentdependentdependentindependentdependentdependentindependentindependentdependentindependentdependent

Critical thinking(Dose Business culture in Europe influence the Essay

Critical thinking(Dose Business culture in Europe influence the culture in Asian) - Essay Example Both cultures ensure that they are always well in touch with what is trending and popular and incorporate this in their own way into their business practices. Another notable aspect in the evaluation of business culture in the two continents is the close proximity in location (Consulting, 2009). This obviously allows them influence each other every so often. However, as with any two systems, there is likelihood that if one has a superior culture (one that is more dominant) their influence on their counterpart would be far more noticeable. In this regard, this paper has determined that the European culture is the far more dominant on a global perspective and therefore influences the Asian business Culture, just as well as the rest of the world. Some of the influences in question are more outstanding and noticeable while some not so much (Jones, 2006). This paper will outline both kinds of influences but focus more on the outstanding influences. The aim of this paper briefly, is to com e to a viable conclusion on whether European business culture has had any influence on Asian business culture. This conclusion is drawn from a viable research. The paper takes into context all factors and perspectives of importance on the issue at hand. This paper took into account scholarly research on the topic at hand. Oxelheim( 2006) determines that the European culture has certain attributes that are specific only to it. This attributes, although having been emulated in other parts of the world are distinctively European. The attributes in question have a relation to the historical or political lifestyle of the European continent and are therefore, for the most part, noticeable. One of the distinctive attributes that Oxelheim( 2006) lays out is the inclination towards family based entrepreneurship. Although other cultures do have this, the European one is more versatile. This is in that, most family based businesses in

Proto-oncogene in prevention of cancer is my focus biochemistry Research Proposal

Proto-oncogene in prevention of cancer is my focus biochemistry - Research Proposal Example A mutation at the proto-oncogenes results in the production of oncogenes that can cause the hereditary cancer syndrome. The mutation causes the change in the oncogene protein expression level and a change in the structure of the protein. If more than one oncogene is activated in the cell, then the abnormal cancerous cell production occurs. Proto-oncogenes are activated by three mechanisms. They are point mutations, chromosomal translocations, insert mutations, protein-protein interactions and gene amplification. Ras protein is an important product of proto-onco gene. Ras is one of the most important switches in the cell signaling pathway.1 There are three Ras proteins in the mammals. If any mutation occurs in the ras protein then it will result in the cell proliferation stimulation and finally apoptosis will be inhibited. Thus tumor cells will be produced. The ras mutation is one of the reasons for 30% of all the human cancer. H-ras, K-ras and N-ras mutations are found in almost all types of cancers. 1 Hence research in this field is much essential because of its importance in the carcinogenesis. Anti cancer therapy for the Ras protein is preferred in order to reduce and cure the cancer. Can anticancer therapy cure cancer? Scientific Background: McGlynn et al. (2009) looked up at the Ras/Raf-1/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway and looked its role in the development and proliferation of cancer.2 They used chemotherapy for the treatment of cancer. Tamoxifen was used for the treatment. They looked up to know whether MAPK pathway has any major role in the carcinogenesis or not? Tamoxifen is an estrogen antagonist and the study was performed to check whether they can act as a target for the estrogen cancer therapy or not? For these two questions Mcglynn et al have found that Ras pathway responds very less for tamoxifen and good for chemotherapy. pRaf(ser338) is found to be the best marker with great effect for the targeted estrogen therapy. A combinati on of chemotherapy along with tamoxifen is required for the therapy. Further new researches are going on to identify small and simple molecules for the treatment of cancer. The signaling pathway molecules are considered to play a very important role in the cancer therapy. Farnesyltransferase (FTI) is an important inhibitor of small molecules. This enzyme is very important for the prenylation of Ras. Tipifarnib is one of the FTI that are used for the treatment of cancer. Here the role of tipifarnib in the Ras signaling pathway was analysed and the growth arrest and cell death related to the ERK and MAPK pathways were looked upon.3 Tipifarnib treatment was found to inhibit and sensitize the ERK and MAPK pathways. They have concluded that geranyl geranylated N-Ras or K-Ras BÂ  are sensititve to tipifarnib and interact in a different manner in the downstream signal processing at the osteosarcoma cells. This helps to maintain the balance between the cell death and proliferation. 3 The m etasatasis ability of the cells is found to be enhanced by the ras activity. The poor understanding of the Ras protein is a big draw back in the treatment of cancer. Here Varghese et al (2002) have looked up to know whether macroscopic metastases are being affected by Ras or not. They have used Green fluorescent protein-transfected NIH 3T3 and T24 H-ras-transformed (PAP2) fibroblasts in the mouse and looked for the

Diploma Biology Notes Essay Example for Free

Diploma Biology Notes Essay DNA is a huge information database that carries the complete set of instructions for making all the proteins a cell will ever need! Although there are only four different bases in DNA (A, C, G and T), the order in which the bases occur determines the information to make a protein, just like the 26 letters of the alphabet combine to form words and sentences: Compare: RAT TAR ART same 3 letters; completely different meanings. And with DNA: GAC AGC CGA same 3 letters; completely different meanings to the cell (specifies the amino acids Aspartic Acid, Serine, and Arginine) Q: Review: What are genes? A: The DNA in each chromosome that DOES provide the instructions for a protein is called a gene. * In the 1940s, scientists proposed, fairly correctly, that each gene codes for (contains the instructions for) one protein. This is referred to as the one-gene, one-protein hypothesis. * One gene will code for perhaps two or more related proteins. * Scientists realized that we had only about 30,000 genes, coding for 100,000 different proteins rather than the 100,000 genes that had been estimated for the human genome * The basic hypothesis is still the same, but we know a lot more details. Q: If DNA is in the nucleus and proteins are synthesized in the cytoplasm, on ribosomes and in the RER, how to they get together? A: The answer: use a messenger to carry the instructions from DNA out into the cytoplasm. A nucleic acid very similar to DNA, called mRNA or messenger RNA, is a copy of a gene, and serves this function the bridge between DNA and protein: The Central Dogma:DNA encodes the information to make RNA and RNA molecules function together to make protein| II. What is RNA and how is it different from DNA? Two big differences between DNA and RNA: * 1. The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose; in RNA it is ribose * 2. The nitrogenous base uracil (U) is used in RNA in place of T (they are very similar bases; in RNA U= A just like T = A.) III. Transcription: Re-writing DNA into RNA DNA has a sense strand and an antisense strand. The antisense strand is complementary to the sense strand. It is also known as the template strand, as this is the strand, which is used for transcription making mRNA. DNA is transcribed or re-written into RNA in a very complicated process called transcription. Simply stated, during transcription, one gene (DNA) is re-written into RNA in the nucleus: * A team of enzymes and proteins binds to the promoter, or starting region, of a gene. * These enzymes and proteins unzip the DNA double helix just at the region of the gene. * The enzyme RNA polymerase uses one of the DNA strands to make an RNA copy of that one gene. * This copy, which contains the instructions to make 1 protein, is called an mRNA or messenger RNA. * After the mRNA is made, it is trimmed down to a final size, and shipped out of the nucleus. * When the mRNA gets into the cytoplasm, it is made into protein * Complete transcription of an RNA molecule. 1. The resulting RNA nucleotides are added on the 3’ end of the growing of mRNA strand. 2. RNA polymerase detaches itself and mRNA is released. 3. Eukaryote pre- mRNA contains exons and introns: * Introns are non-coding regions that need to be removed before translation The structure of tRNA matches its functions : Funtion : to bring amino acids from the cytoplasm to the growing polypeptide and to attach them in the current location. tRNA is activated by a tRNA activating enzyme. tRNA delivers amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain in translation. It picks up new amino acids when activated by a specific tRNA activating enzyme. IV. Connection between mRNA and protein: The order of the bases in the DNA specifies the order of bases in the mRNA, and The order of bases in the mRNA specifies the order of amino acids in a protein.| The genetic code is a triplet code (handout) 1. Nucleotides on mRNA are read three at a time by the ribosome. * Every three nucleotides in an mRNA (a codon) specify the addition of one amino acid in a protein. * For example, a 600 nucleotide mRNA will code for a 200 amino acid protein. 2. The amino acids corresponding to all 64 codons have been determined. All proteins start with the initiation codon AUG (Met) * All proteins end with stop codons -either UAA, UGA, or UAG * Some codons that differ in the third nucleotide can still code for the same amino acid The genetic code chart represents the sequence on the mRNA codon. V. Translation = De-coding RNA into protein During translation, the mRNA transported to the cytoplasm is de-coded or translated to produce the correct order of amino acids in a protein. Translation requires numerous enzymes. rRNA = ribosomal RNA; these RNA molecules associate with other proteins to form the ribosomes. Each ribosome can accept two tRNAs at a time (carrying amino acids) and one mRNA. tRNA = transfer RNA; small RNA molecules that carry a specific amino acid at one end and an anticodon region that recognizes and binds mRNA at the other end. The tRNA that binds to that mRNA codon determines what amino acid is added to a protein chain. The Three RNAs (mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA) all work together to turn the information in DNA into a 3-dimestional protein. The steps of translation: 1. Initiation: mRNA enters the cytoplasm and becomes associated with ribosomes (rRNA + proteins). tRNAs, each carrying a specific amino acid, pair up with the mRNA polys inside the ribosomes. Base pairing (A-U, G-C) between mRNAcodons and tRNA anticodons determines the order of amino acids in a protein. 2. Elongation: addition of amino acids one-by-one: As the ribosome moves along the mRNA, the tRNA transfers its amino acid to the growing protein chain, producing the protein codon by codon! 3. Termination: when the ribosomes hit a stop codon UAA, UGA, or UAG the ribosome falls apart. The same mRNA may be used hundreds of times during translation by many ribosomes before it is broken down by the cell.

Effects of Overpopulation and Industrialization on the Environment Essa

Effects of Overpopulation and Industrialization on the Environment Throughout history, the world’s population has expanded in an extremely exponential fashion-- taking over three million years to achieve a one billion person benchmark, it then only took 130, 30, 15, 12, and 11 years to reach subsequent billions, respectively. (Southwick, 159) Such a massive and still increasing population, combined with the environmentally detrimental repercussions of industrialization (as a result of the need to sustain such a large population), namely pollution from fossil fuels, has begun to take a serious toll on our planet’s ecosystem. Moreover, â€Å"some scientists have calculated that an optimal human population on earth in terms of reasonable living standards is no more than 2 billion people.† (Southwick, 161) Already, we are well over this â€Å"optimal† population level at more than 6 billion people with projections of growing by another 2 to 4 billion in this century. Still, with the advent of modern technologies, primarily in the areas of medicine and agriculture, humans â€Å"have effectively increased the size of the globe over the last two centuries, in terms of the maximum population which it will support.† (Dolan, 58) Nonetheless, in spite of such stark improvements in technological efficiency and capability, the fact remains that one in five people worldwide lives malnourished and without adequate housing. Equally important, and especially pertaining to the topic at hand, is the notion that such overpopulation, in conjunction with industrialization on a global scale, has led to increased emissions of harmful pollutants, some of which can cause ozone depletion and global warming. Global warming, which will be examined shortly, is the phen... ...nmental salvation and continuity. This transition, led by developed nations, must include a commitment to the efficient research, development, and production of alternate fuel sources—those that are renewable, clean, and cost efficient (ie, hydrogen fuel). Otherwise, the uncertain long run implications of our current excessive consumption patterns may bring about the end of existence, as we know it. Sources: Dolan, Edwin G., "TANSTAAFL: The Economic Strategy for Environmental Crisis" 1974, pp. 55-72. Ponting, Clive. Chapter 13, "The Second Great Transition," St. Martins Press, NYC, 1991, pp. 288 Southwick, Charles H., "Global Ecology in Human Perspective" Oxford Univ. Press, 1996, pp. 159-182. Stanitski, C. et al (eds.), Chemistry in Context, Applying Chemistry to Society, Mcgraw-Hill, 2003 Internet 1 (http://cop5.unfccc.int/convkp/begconkp.html)

Management Is An Art Or Science Essay

The concept of management is universal and very old. That is why different views have been expressed about its nature by different writers from time to time. According to my personal opinion management has element of both art and science. Management as an Art Art refers to the way of doing specific things; it indicates how an object can be achieved. Art is a combination of knowledge and skills. Art keeps changing and basically is the application of theoretical principles by science to get excellent results. Management at times is described as an art that how managerial principles can be applied in real world situations, it consists of the following aspects: Practical knowledge: Managers do have practical knowledge of the domain, also they know how to apply it. they know the pros and cons of any act as they know that only knowledge is not enough, but one should know how to apply it as well. Personal Skills: Peculiar abilities which you own are not held by every other person. E.g. Painters paint the similar things in a different manner. It varies from person to person. Some may paint it effectively while others may not catch attention. Similarly every manager has personal skills as well while applying managerial principles, on the basis of his experience which might fetch better results or fail. Creativity: The act if making something in a efficient way and a different manner, and using it in such a way to manage, is creativity. it is based in creativity and intelligence of a person. Vision is definite and based on the facts, it is one’s destiny. Management is also a collection of human and non human resources by using them in a different manner to achieve desired objectives. Practice: Practice makes man perfect. No one is born a true artist. in the same way, no one learns to manage right out of the womb. they furnish their skills over the time through practice. Goal oriented: Managerial activities are always goal based, directed towards achievement of results. for this very purpose, various resources human and non human resources are blended so the ability of managers of using available resources brings it near to arts. Management as Science Management as a Science: Science may be described as a systematized body of knowledge based on proper findings and exact principles and is capable of verification Science is extraordinary. With the aid of science, we can visualize matter across 37 orders of magnitude, from the largest galactic cluster to the smallest known particle . When science is done correctly, it can advise us in all of our day-to-day decisions and actions. Science is a method of doing things. It is the organized, systematic enterprise that gathers knowledge about the world and condenses the knowledge into testable laws and principles. The origin of a modern science of management can be traced to the work of Frederick Taylor (1911) and Luther Gulick (1937). The science of management and administration has become a principal component of management theory and practice in the recent year. Management known as a science because it focuses on the following Principles: management comprises of universally accepted principles, that is why a many believe that it is a science. E.g. rewarding and employee for good performance. Experimentation and observation: First, managers observe some new techniques then employ them in business to check results, so they can eventually be adopted or avoided. Cause and effect relation: Science is based on cause and effect relationship as it is always based on finding relationships between the variables. E.g. heating a metal. Satisfactory performance of employees in any organization is a result of a positive working condition and the two variables are performance and working conditions. Test of validity and predictability: Validity means soundness. in science soundness of the scientific principles can be verified at any given time and they provide similar results every time and in near future probable events can be predicted by using such principles. In management the validity of principles can be established by applying them in different solutions and matching the outcome with the original result. For example, one of the principles in Management is unity of command. if it is tested in a situation  where an employee has to work under two bosses and in situation where employee has to perform under 1 boss, their performance will be different from each other. Conclusion- Management is an Art and Science Both So, I conclude that management is an art and science both. Management is the art and science of preparing, organizing and directing human efforts to control the forces and utilize the natural resource and time for the benefit of men. Thus, it has now been accepted that management is an art as well as science. It has the elements of both arts and science, but some people think management is indeed a science, because of the scientific principles and rules that exist and that can be applied for improving the productivity and efficiency of organizations, profit or nonprofit. This kind of approach is good but we have to keep in mind that solution to every problem is not specified or given by rules and principles, sometimes we have to go creative think out of the box. So management as an art comes into the picture. Art and science both foster new and creative ways to understand organizations and communicate what we know about them. They both generate and employ metaphors of management that help us form our perceptions, assumptions, and new ideas about organizations. Both inspire our imagination. Research in the art and science of management will continue systematically to gather knowledge about the behavior of people in organizations and try to present that knowledge in new and testable theories, concepts, and hypotheses. But future research also must be pursued with enough flexibility to permit the emergence and investigation of entirely new knowledge about organizations and the way we manage them. In the words Management is a mixture of an art an science – the present ratio is about 80% art and 20% science.

Explain the principle psychological perspective Essay

Behaviourist A perspective means a way of seeing things. Behaviourist is the first approach in this criterion. Behaviourist is the study of human minds, they study behaviour. The behaviourist sees the brain as a black box, this is because as they study animals it is easy to experiment, and they think that humans and animals are similar. The behaviourist wanted to become scientist, which is why they carried out the experiment. Although JB Watson (1887) was the founder of this theorist he studied the work of Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). Pavlov did an experiment once on a dog. The dog salivated every time Pavlov came to the lab with the food. The dog then started associating the time, the bell and the brown coat. This kind of association is called classic conditioning. JB Watson also once experimented on a little boy called Albert. JB Watson taught Albert to have fear of the rats. Albert had a white fluffy rabbit. One day a white rat came pass Albert, but Albert did not seem to be frightened. JB Watson stood behind Albert’s back with metals. Every time the rat went pass JB banged the metals and Albert was startled, JB did this couple of times until Albert was scared of the rat, however Albert was not only scared of the white rat, it was also scared of his white fluffy rabbit as them to animals has the same colour. BF Skinner was also another behaviourist theorist, he did an experiment on a rat in a cage, he put some food on the food pallet for the rat, the rat accidently put its foot on the lever and food came out. So the rat did this few time and knew that if the rat puts the foot on the lever food would come out, this type of experiment was positive reinforcement. On the opposite Skinner experimented on the negative reinforcement. Skinner investigated this by giving the rat a small electric shock whenever it pressed the lever. The consequence of lever pressing was experienced as unpleasant, so the rat learnt to stop pressing the lever. Psycho dynamic Freud ( 1856-1939) and Erikson(1902-194) are two men who came up with the psycho dynamic theory. Freud said that we humans are like animals driven by basic biological natures. He came up with the psyche idea. He said that the psyche idea had three stages, ID means the basic animal instinct, for example, eating sleeping and reproducing, SUPER EGO means morality and EGO means reality and logic. It is said that Freud was the earliest thinkers to bring public attention the idea that us humans are not always aware of some aspects in our lives. He believed that we lock up memories that we do not want to remember or feeling that we do not want to expose somewhere in our brains. He referred consciousness to a tip of an iceberg. He referred pre consciousness at the middle of the ice berg and he also referred unconsciousness as at the bottom of the iceberg. He also came up with defence mechanisms. He knew that when people do not want to remember things, they want to deny it. This mechanism has five stages. Denial is when a person reject the thought or feeling, repression is when we push down the bad memories to the unconsciousness however it could leak at some points. Projection is when a person pushes the social unacceptable thoughts or feelings to someone else. Rationalisation means making excuses and lastly sublimation is putting all the energies onto something else. Freud also came up with the early experience; he came up with this idea which has five stages. Oral means mouth, anal means anus, phallic is a Latin word for penis, latent which means resting and genital which means private parts. Erikson agrees with Freud however he thought that this continues throughout our life time and were essentially social in nature. Social Learning Theory The theorist of social learning theory is bandura. He is said to be sympathetic towards behaviourist. Although bandura does not criticize, he tells the behaviourist to build up to it. Bandura agrees with the positive reinforcement. Albert bandura said that leaning takes place in social situations, such as in the family or with friends and other people. How Skinner came up with positive reinforcement, Albert came up with vicarious reinforcement, this means when people observe and get affected. For example, Barbara is good to her mother and the father praises her, her sister is observing it but she gets affected by how she is getting treated by her parents, Barbara’s sister was vicariously reinforced. The other idea bandura came up with was role model and modelling. The people we learn from are our role model but the process of imitating the person is called modelling. Modelling has five stages, attention, which is when a person is attracted to a celebrity or a person they reall y like. Retention is when the person is keeping the likeness inside them, reproduction is when he person copies the behaviour, motivation is when the person is tempted to do what the celebrity does and lastly self efficacy is when the person is confident in one area. It is said that we do not imitate all behaviour we observe and remember. Humanistic This approach has been found by two theorist called Carl Rogers (1902-1987) and Abraham Maslow. Carl Rogers (1902-1087) theory is based on clinic and it is also based on the years he has been dealing with different clients with different problems. Rogers sees people as good and he thinks that â€Å"good mental health is a natural progression of human development†. This quote shows that he is stating that human being instinctively know what is bad and what is not. Rogers came up with an idea of an actualisation theory. This is the natural motivation that every human being has. For example, we as human beings try to do very risky things, such as flying to the moon. Some of our hobbies is to create music and paint pictures, we do all because we want to be the best we can, achieve and become successful in the future. He also came up with the idea of unconditional positive regard; he said that this is when people like you, because of who you are regardless of your performances and conformity. The opposite of this is conditional positive regard, which simply explains when someone likes you if their expectations are fulfilled. In other words, Rogers believed that some of the people feel wanted and belonged when they fulfilled other people’s expectations and that is when they develop conditional self regard. Cognitive Approach Cognitive approach is found by three theorist, Jean Piaget, Kelly and beck/Ellis. With the invention of computers and other aids brain activities was like the operation of a computer. Loads of researches have been devoted to understand the process of cognitive, such as attention, memory information processing and problem solving. Jean Piaget came up with an idea related to how people develop throughout their lives. He came to a conclusion that cognition develops through a series of stages. There are four stages that Piaget has mentioned in the theory. The first stage is called the sensory motor, it means that babies from 0 to 2 are experiencing through motor and the sense. stage 2 is the pre operational, this is when children from 2 to 7 develop languages along with the memory, stage 3 is the concrete operational which means that the child can now understand conservations but cannot solve problems yet. The last stage is the formal stage, this is when the children can abstract thought s and present problems of their own and other people. Biological Approach The theorist of this theory is called Arnold Gessel (1880-1961), Gessel came up with the idea is that people are born with a set of genes and the genes carries different personalities, so the theorist is stating that behaviour does not to do with environment and what can of people you socialise with but it is to do with the genes the person is born with. This is quite different to the humanistic approach where the effectiveness of nurture is paramount. Gessel believes that as the baby is being formed in the womb of the mother, for example, the heart being first to form. As the child develops the genes allows to flower over the person. The theorist came up with the genetic influences on behaviour idea. He thinks that genes effect behaviour in many ways, some illnesses such as Huntingdon’s disease is caused by the genes caused by the parents genes or the genes from the family. This disorder will change the person’s behaviour, for example, they will speak in appropriately and they will become aggressive.

Government Cover-ups essays

Government Cover-ups essays September 11 was a day of complete terror and tragedy. Muslim radicals murdered over 3000 innocent civilians in a surprise attack that completely destroyed the World Trade Center and part of the Pentagon. This is what supposedly happened on 9/11, but more took place that what meets the eye. The US government took part in the bombings in some way. Their reason: money, war, and taking away our freedom through the Patriot Act. This will be shone backed by widely available evidence found in books, interviews, and on the internet. Many people believe that the World Trade Center (WTC) attacks were a complete surprise to the American government. For over a year the government has been telling the public that there were no warnings and there was no way to stop the bombings. But what if the government were lying the whole time? What if the government had warnings of an attack but refused to investigate them? In the days after September 11, Bush administration officials repeatedly characterized the suicide hijackings as a sneak attack for which there had been no warning(Martin, Moussaoui). This statement implies: If the government had known about the bombings they would have stopped the disaster. To the contrary, could this claim by the government actually be a cover-up for what really happened on September 11? Government claims of a surprise attack were later exposed as lies by newspapers and magazines that gave proof of advanced warnings. The governments of at least four countries-Germany, Egypt, Russia and Israel-gave specific warnings to the US of an impending terrorist attack in the months preceding September 11. These alerts, while fragmentary, not only combined to foretell the scale of the attack and its main target, but also indicated that hijacked commercial aircraft would be the weapon of choice (Martin, US government alerted). According to an article in one of the major daily n...

Ouranosaurus - Facts and Figures

Ouranosaurus - Facts and Figures Name: Ouranosaurus (Greek for brave lizard); pronounced ore-ANN-oh-SORE-us Habitat: Plains of northern Africa Historical Period: Middle Cretaceous (115-100 million years ago) Size and Weight: About 23 feet long and four tons Diet: Plants Distinguishing Characteristics: Row of spines jutting out from backbone; horned beak About Ouranosaurus Once considered to be a close relative of Iguanodon, paleontologists have now classified Ouranosaurus as a type of hadrosaur (duck-billed dinosaur)albeit one with a major difference. This plant-eater had rows of spines jutting out vertically from its backbone, which has fueled speculation that it may have sported a sail of skin, like the contemporary Spinosaurus or the much earlier pelycosaur Dimetrodon. However, some paleontologists maintain that Ouranosaurus didnt have a sail at all, but a flattened hump, rather like that of a camel. If Ouranosaurus did in fact possess a sail (or even a hump) the logical question is, why? As with other sailed reptiles, this structure may have evolved as a temperature-regulation device (assuming that Ouranosaurus had a cold-blooded rather than a warm-blooded metabolism), and it may also have been a sexually selected characteristic (that is, Ouranosaurus males with bigger sails had the opportunity to mate with more females). A fatty hump, on the other hand, might have served as a valuable reserve of food and water, the same function as it serves in modern camels. One lesser-known feature of Ouranosaurus is the shape of this dinosaurs head: it was unusually long and flat for a hadrosaur, and lacking any of the ornamentation of later duck-billed dinosaurs (such as the elaborate crests of Parasaurolophus and Corythosaurus) save for a slight ridge over the eyes. Like other hadrosaurs, the four-ton Ouranosaurus may have been capable of running away from predators on its two hind feet, which presumably would have imperiled the lives of any smaller theropods or ornithopods in the immediate vicinity!

Case study analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Case study analysis - Essay Example Politically speaking, being green or a friend to the environment means that a legislator or a political maven would not be too friendly with performance and luxury car producers like BMW. Essentially, the entire industry is facing this problem and something must be done on a collective basis to counter the political forces. Since BMW is a global brand, it has to position itself according to the global market requirements for high end cars. In many places, the demand for luxury cars may not be as significant as others and since BMW is primarily a manufacturer of luxury cars, it should consider making inroads into areas like China and the Asia Pacific region where market growth is expected to boom in the coming years. Moreover, economic competition for BMW is rather difficult since it competes more on the idea of luxury and style which is often much better than the other producers in the market. However, for markets where the buyers are seeking to economise on their cars, the MINI brand can work quite well if the market segmentation is handled effectively (Harbour, 2001). Additionally, cars running on alternative fuels such as hydrogen and cars running with hybrid engines can also be created for markets where there is an adequate support network for both. While it is difficult to consider politically created socio-cultural factors as hurting or helping BMW’s position, the use of media, advertising and brand positioning all come into play under this title. Effective use of these sources can help BMW create, establish and even change their image if media sources are effectively managed by the company. The repute for German car making for example has long stood as a given in the car industry (Wikipedia, 2006). Similarly, the position of BMW as a luxury and performance car was certainly enhanced by the link to cultural icons like James Bond and such

Essay1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Essay1 - Essay Example Take for instance the birth of a newborn baby in this world. Unlike wild animals, which learn how to survive on their own without their mother’s nursing and attention, human babies, require full attention of their mothers in order to survive. Take for instance a waterbuck calf. Once born, the calf learns how to walk in the first few hours. At the end of the first 24 hours, it knows how to jump and run about. The mother suckles it only for a few days before it begins to eat grass and other green vegetation for survival. One week later, the calf can entirely survive on its own without the help of the mother. The newborn calf will have to fend for itself. Contrary to this case, a human child cannot survive on its own without the mother’s milk, warmth and tender care a week after birth. This would be like a death sentence to the new child. In case of inevitable circumstances where the mother has to abandon the child, such as dying during childbirth, then the community has to take the sole responsibility of ensuring the well-being and development of the newborn baby until it is mature enough to survive on its own. Most human babies learn how to eat solid food in six months, learn how to move or walk in 8 to 12 months, and learn how to speak in 10 to 15 months. During this period, the child’s brain remains underdeveloped in such a way that he or she cannot make a cognitive decision on their own, and as such, require the assistance of their mothers, guardians, or the community around them to guess and provide the child what they might be needing. In his article â€Å"Is Facebook Making Us Lonely?† Stephen Marche surveys the recent research assessing our connectedness. According to Stephen, when suffering from loneliness, â€Å"Still, loneliness is slippery, a difficult state to define or diagnose†¦how often do you feel you lack companionship?† (18). this data creates an undisputed display of our instinctual need for connectedness.

Marketing Planning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Marketing Planning - Essay Example At this point, it is essential to note that customer satisfaction and sustained marketing of a product could still alter the life of a product in the market by extending its relevance. When marketing planning is considered in terms of the product life cycle aspect, there are two things that come into play and these are theories as well as practices regarding the marketing phenomenon and the characteristics of how viable the product may be regarded to be (Drummond & Ensor, 2001, pp.112-118). The whole argument is based on the fact that products generically do show a number of elements that are both abstract and concrete which do define the claims that a user has over the product, expectations on use, and the degree at which he or she is satisfied. This paper takes a look at marketing planning through the model of product life cycle. The organization in practice is Samsung. Analysis In marketing planning, product life cycle consist of five major phases. ... roducing a new product into the market because the product life cycle directly affects the sales volumes or performance (Hata, et al., 2000, pp.34-39). Samsung does take its product marketing planning through the above phases and when a product reaches the decline phase, it is re-engineered through R&D to extend its life cycle (Westkamper, 2000, pp.501–522). Figure 1: Product Life Cycle Product development phase This starts with the company finding and developing a new idea about a product. At this stage different aspects of information regarding a product are translated and incorporated into a single or unified product that is considered new. The product is taken through various changes that demand more time and money at this development phase and this must be done before exposing the product to ultimate consumers through pilot projects (Rose & Ishii, 1999, pp.41-51). When a product does successfully go through the test market, it is introduced into the actual marketplace and this does initiate the introduction stage for the product where marketing activities pick up intensively. This product development phase exhibits zero sales as well as negative revenues are experienced, marking a period of absolute spending without any form of monetary returns. In the case of Samsung, the product development process is very intense with a lot of consumer consultation in order to incorporate all or most of the specifications needed by the customer where possible (Olhager, 2003, pp.319-329). Introduction phase Introduction of the product into the market is done after the development phase. At this point, Samsung’s electronic products normally will exhibit low sales volumes because the customers are not well aware of the product’s existence in the market while some are not

Understanding Gender Based Violence Sociology Essay

Understanding Gender Based Violence Sociology Essay Gender-based violence both reflects and reinforces inequities between men and women and compromises the health, self-respect, safety and sovereignty of its victims. It encompasses an extensive assortment of human rights violations, including sexual exploitation of children, rape, home brutality, sexual battering and harassment, trafficking of women and girls and numerous detrimental customary practices. Any one of these abuses can leave profound mental scars, damage the wellbeing of women and girls in common, including their reproductive and sexual health, and in some instances, results in death. Violence against women has been called the most insidious yet slightest renowned human rights oppression in the globe, and is a demonstration of historically uneven supremacy dealings between men and women, which have led to dominance over and inequity against women by men and to the hindrance of the complete progression of women, that cruelty against women is one of the critical social mech anisms by which women are compelled into a subsidiary position compared with men. Around the world, as many as one in every three women has been beaten, coerced into sex, or maltreated in some other approach most frequently by someone she knows, including by her spouse or another male relatives; one woman in four has been ill-treated during pregnancy. Violence against women mutually violates and impairs or nullifies the gratification by women of their human rights and elementary freedoms. In all societies, to a superior or minor extent, women and girls are subjected to corporal, sexual and mental violence that cuts across ranks of earnings, class and customs. This is a subject which endangers womens lives, bodies, mental uprightness and autonomy. Violence may have reflective effects, both direct and indirect, on a womans reproductive health, including: unnecessary pregnancies and limited admittance to family planning information and contraceptives, treacherous abortion or injuries unremitting throughout a lawful abortion subsequent to an unwanted pregnancy, compl ications from recurrent, high-risk pregnancies and lack of follow-up care, sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, continual gynecological problems as well as mental tribulations. Gender-based violence also serves by purpose or outcome to perpetuate male authority and control. It is sustained by a custom of silence and denunciation of the significance of the health penalty of violence. In addition to the impairment they exact on the individual stage, these outcomes also exact a communal duty and position an intense and needless yoke on health services. According to Murphy and Ringheim, four factors have been constantly linked with violent behavior: norms of male privilege and possession of women; male supervision of possessions in the family; male execution of decision-making in the family; and concepts of masculinity attached to supremacy and nobility (2001). Moreover, UNFPA recognizes that violence against women is inextricably linked to gender-based inequalities. When women and girls are anticipated to be generally submissive, their conduct in relation to their health, together with reproductive health, is unenthusiastically affected at all stages of the life cycle. When investigating the extenuating conditions lack of resources, education, healthcare and the sex trade, we find great and competent relations, and understand that these factors enable the perseverance of this phenomenon. The pervasiveness of home violence in a given society, thus, is the outcome of implicit reception by that society. The way men analyze themselves as men, and the way they think of women, will verify whether they use aggression or intimidation against women. Studies of very young boys and girls show that even though boys may have an inferior acceptance for annoyance, and an inclination towards rough-and-tumble play, these tendencies are dwarfed by the magnitude of male socialization and peer demands into masculinity roles. UNFPA recognizes that ending gender-based violence will mean changing cultural concepts about masculinity, and that procedure should dynamically appoint men, whether they are strategy makers, parents, spouses or little boys. Cross-cultural studies of wife abuse have found that nearly a fifth of peasant and small-scale societies are essentially free of family violence. The existence of such cultures proves that male violence against women is not the inevitable result of male biology or sexuality, but more a matter of how society views masculinity. Most domestic violence involves male anger directed against their women partners. This gender difference appears to be rooted in the way boys and men are socialized biological factors do not seem to account for the dramatic differences in behavior in this regard between men and women. Pregnant women are particularly vulnerable to gender-based violence. Some husbands become more violent during the wifes pregnancy, even kicking or hitting their wives in the belly. These women run twice the risk of miscarriage and four times the risk of having a low birth-weight baby. Looking at the pprevalence of and reasons for domestic violence among women from low socioeconomic communities of Karachi, cross-sectional study were conducted to estimate the prevalence of domestic violence and identify the reasons for it among 400 married women aged 15-45 years in low socioeconomic areas in urban Karachi. Data were collected with a pretested questionnaire. The prevalence of verbal abuse was 97.5% by the husband and 97.0% by the in-laws; the prevalence of physical abuse was 80.0% and 57.5% by the husband and in-laws respectively. Financial issues were the commonest reason for domestic violence followed by infertility and not having a son. The prevalence of domestic violence in this sample of women is high. There is a need to address this problem with efforts from health workers, policy-makers, nongovernmental organizations and others (Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal 2007). The majority of sexual assault victims are young. Women in positions of abject dependence on male authorities are also particularly subject to unwanted sexual coercion. Rape in time of war is still common. It has been extensively documented in recent civil conflicts, and has been used systematically as an instrument of torture or ethnic domination. Now, with precedents set at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, in Tanzania, and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, at The Hague, for mass rape, other acts such as sexual assault, sexual slavery, forced prostitution, forced sterilization, forced abortion, and forced pregnancy may qualify as crimes of torture, crimes against humanity, and even some as crimes of genocide. This vicious cycle of development, identity and gender-based violence in fact explains the empirical evidence of the association between gender based violence and poverty, the individual risk factors of alcohol and substance abuse, ma le unemployment, male educational status and childhood experience of violence. Poverty, lack of education and lack of healthcare increases both vulnerability and the likelihood of exposure to gender based violence. There has also been the prevalence of the sex trade among women as a means of earning income which ultimately has unbearable the consequences on its workers and on women in general. The objectification of women is also a pressing issue that cannot be ignored. Violence, and womens fear of it, limits womens choices in virtually all spheres of life. It has long-term, as well as short-term consequences on womens physical and emotional well-being. It detrimentally affects womens ability to gain an education, earn a livelihood, develop human relationships and participate in public activities, including development programmes. There are different types of problems all over the world that women face, from the wealthiest countries to the poorest. In many countries, women are not entitled to own property or inherit land. Social exclusion, honor killings, female genital mutilation, trafficking, restricted mobility and early marriage among others, deny the right to health to women and girls and increase illness and death throughout the life-course. It will remain difficult for us to see sustainable progress unless we fix failures in health systems and society so that girls and women enjoy equal access to health information and services, education, em ployment and political positions. Reports by UNICEF, State of the Worlds Children, state that reasons for such disparity include the fact that women are generally underpaid and because they often perform low-status jobs, compared to men. UNICEF notes that the data isnt always perfect, and that generalizations such as the above can hide wider fluctuations. In Brazil, for example, women under the age of 25 earn a higher average hourly wage than their male counterparts. (p.39)Women not only earn less than men but also tend to own fewer assets. Smaller salaries and less control over household income constrain their ability to accumulate capital. Gender biases in property and inheritance laws and in other channels of acquiring assets also leave women and children at greater risk of poverty. Paid employment for women does not automatically lead to better outcomes for children. Factors such as the amount of time women spend working outside the household, the conditions under which they are employed and who controls the income they generate determine how the work undertaken by women in the labor market affects their own well-being and that of children (2007, p.36). Moreover, according to the United Nations, in no country in the world do men come anywhere close to women in the amount of time spent in housework. Furthermore, despite the efforts of feminist movements, women in the core [wealthiest, Western countries] still suffer disproportionately, leading to what sociologists refer to as the feminization of poverty, where two out of every three poor adults are women. The informal slogan of the Decade of Women became Women do two-thirds of the worlds work, receive 10 percent of the worlds income and own 1 percent of the means of production (Robbins 1999, p.354). Historically, economic recessions have placed a disproportionate burden on women. Women are more likely than men to be in vulnerable jobs, to be under-employed or without a job, to lack social protection, and to have limited access to and control over economic and financial resources. Policy responses to the financial crisis must take gender equality perspectives into account to ensure, for example, that women as well as men can benefit from employment creation and investments in social infrastructure. According to the Department of Economic and Social Affairs 2009, The economic and financial crisis puts a disproportionate burden on women, who are often concentrated in vulnerable employment, are more likely to be unemployed than men, tend to have lower unemployment and social security benefits, and have unequal access to and control over economic and financial resources. International statistics of the International Labor Organization showed that The economic crisis is expected to in crease the number of unemployed women by up to 22 million in 2009, the International Labor Office (ILO) says in its annual Global Employment Trends for Women report (GET), adding that the global jobs crisis is expected to worsen sharply with the deepening of the recession in 2009. In most societies, rape and domestic violence have on occasion provoked public outrage, but it has been left to womens organizations and movements to take more concerted action. The North does not have all the answers to this problem as gender-based violence is very much in existence in the developed world. Because gender-based violence is sustained by silence, womens voices must be heard. UNFPA puts every effort into enabling women to speak out against gender-based violence, and to get help when they are victims of it. The Fund is also committed to keeping gender-based violence in the spotlight as a major health and human rights concern. Another fascinating fact is that gender based violence is rampant in developed counties as compared to the developing countries. For instance, in a place like the U.S, despite the fact that advocacy groups like National Organization for Women (NOW) have worked for two decades to halt the epidemic of gender-based violence and sexual assault, the numb ers are still shocking. Murder, Intimate Partner Violence or Battering, sexual violence and assault are common phenomena. To the astonishment of most women across the globe, there is such a low conviction rate in gender-based violence cases, women are not believed by men and apparently even by fellow women. The judiciary imposes light sentences on such cases and even to some they are released on very modest bail or a mere warning. UNFPA advocates for legislative reform and enforcement of laws for the promotion and the protection of womens rights to reproductive health choices and informed consent, including promotion of womens awareness of laws , regulations and policies that affect their rights and responsibilities in family life. The Fund promotes zero tolerance of all forms of violence against women and works for the eradication of traditional practices that are harmful to womens reproductive and sexual health, such as rituals associated with puberty. Possible victims have been offered legal, medical and psychological support, and medical referrals when necessary. Attention has been paid to involving communities, and to creating support networks for gender-based violence victims that include both police and health-care providers, along with counseling services. UNFPA has also held workshops for health providers on recognizing the effects of gender-based violence on womens health, and on how to detect and prevent abuse and assist victims. These have stressed the need for confidentiality and monitoring. This body has also strengthening advocacy on gender-based violence in all country programmes, in conjunction with other United Nations partners and NGOs as well as advocating for women with parliamentarians and womens national networks. There have been strategies to counter violence against women and support the survivors. Case studies come from times of peace and times of armed conflict. Sections suggest strategies for transforming attitudes and beliefs in different societies that condone such violence, for supporting individual survivors, and to ensure that governments and NGOs fulfill their duty to protect woman. Womens rights around the world are an important indicator to understand global well-being. A major global womens rights treaty was ratified by the majority of the worlds nations a few decades ago. Yet, despite many successes in empowering women, numerous issues still exist in all areas of life, ranging from the cultural, political to the economic. For example, women often work more than men, yet are paid less; gender discrimination affects girls and women throughout their lifetime; and women and girls are often are the ones that suffer the most poverty. Many may think that womens rights are only an issue in countries where religion is law, such as many Muslim countries. Or even worse, some may think this is no longer an issue at all. But reading this report about the United Nations Womens Treaty and how an increasing number of countries are lodging reservations, will show otherwise. Gender equality furthers the cause of child survival and development for all of society, so the importance of womens rights and gender equality should not be underestimated. As part of its work to counter gender-based violence, UNFPA has supported training of medical professionals, to make them more sensitive towards women who may have experienced violence and to meet their health needs. Governments are not living up to their promises under the Womens Convention to protect women from discrimination and violence such as rape and female genital mutilation. There are many governments who have also not ratified the Convention, including the U.S. Many countries that have ratified it do so with many reservations. Gender equality and the well-being of children go hand in hand since it furthers the cause of child survival and development. It produces a double dividend: It benefits both women and children. Womens equal rights and influence in the key decisions that shape their lives and those of children must be enhanced in three distinct arenas: the household, the workplace and the political sphere. Gender equality is not only morally right, it is pivotal to human progress and sustainable development. Furthermore, this will be taking us closer to achieving the Millennium Development Goal Number 3-promoting gender equality and empowering women-will also contribute to achieving all the other goals, from reducing poverty and hunger to saving childrens lives, improving maternal health, ensuring universal education, combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases, and ensuring environmental sustainability. Pressure must be maintained on national governments to prioritise the coordination of programmes and policies across sectors such as health, justice, social welfare and education to ensure that the composite needs of survivors of violence are addressed. Of equal importance is scaling up responses that work media campaigns, hotlines, and one-stop crisis centers and so on. Basically, gender based violence limits women as human beings, drains their energy and hope, and constricts the possibilities of creating a new vision of society. Since it includes threats of violence, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private, Violence against women is a violation of womens human rights, a cause and consequence of gender inequality, and a major cause of womens ill health. It is a detriment to their well-being, very often a crime, and a significant cost to the resources of the wider society. As a consequence, there are policy issues across the whole range of subjects that concern governments. These issues are particularly important in the area of crime, health, family, education and economic well-being.

Unrealistic Images of Women in Charlotte Brontes Jane Eyre :: Jane Eyre Essays

Unrealistic Images of Women in Jane Eyre   Ã‚  Ã‚   Jane Eyre, written by Charlotte Bronte, is the story of an orphan named Jane. It describes the life of a young girl. The book begins in Gateshead Hall where Jane lived with her aunt and her cousins. She is very much the unwanted child---- a burden to the entire Reed family. Infact she is mistreated and abused in that house. Her Aunt and her cousins both physically and emotionally abuse her. After a while her Aunt sends her off to a charitable institution, Lowood. In Lowood the food is scarce. The manager, Mr. Brocklehurst is mean-fisted. He kept the girls almost on the brink of starvation. When the summer arrived the girls started falling sick. Bronte writes,"Semi-starvation and neglected colds had predisposed most of the pupils to receive infection; forty-five of the eighty girls lay ill at one time"(Bronte 66). Yet through all this Jane survives. She goes to graduate from that school and become a teacher. At nineteen years of age Jane leaves Lowood to be a governess to a child in Thornfield. In Thornfied Jane experiences liberty at last. She is no longer obligated to anyone. However in Thornfield she falls in love with her master Rochester. And for the first in her life she too is loved and wanted by a man. However at the altar she finds out that he is married. Though his wife is a dangerous lunatic she feels compelled to leave him. Through out the book Jane is portrayed as a survivor. She is the epitome of womanhood. Jane is a survivor. She survives abuse at both Gateshead and Lowood. She survives the death of her best and only friend, Helen Burns. She is strong and does not wilt under the pressure of life. Even when life is cruel it cannot quite kill her spirit or her desire to be alive. Jane breaks away from the traditional woman. The one who needs protection and shelter from the harsh world. The woman who needs a man to hold her and comfort her. On the contrary Jane is independent and self-sufficient. Bronte emphasizes Jane's independence by making her a working woman and contrasting her with the rest of the women who were interested in Rochester. Unlike them she takes care of herself. She does not aim to get married into wealth. She is in love with Rochester's mind while Blanche is in love with his purse.

How non English Native Speaker Translate Slang Texting into Regular English

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTIONThe subject of this study is slang and how the use of slang can be transferred from a source text in one language to a target text in another language. I have chosen this subject because slang is something in a conversation or similar communicative situation that most people easily recognize as soon as it is uttered, but explaining and defining what slang is and how it functions is an entirely different matter.Consequently, it is interesting to research the use of slang in order to determine if there are any difficulties in transferring slang from one language to another. Slang seems to have suffered social stigma among linguists and lexicographers because it has frequently been associated with overtly impertinent behavior (Adams 2009: 32). However, as it turns out, little research has been conducted into the actual use of slang. In fact, finding sources to explain the function of slang is very difficult.Researching terminology that is attributed to being slang , showed me that slang is more than just words to show impertinent behavior and that there are many social aspects embedded in slang, which in this thesis will be referred to as the use of slang. This study seeks to find out what slang is, how it is used, who uses it and why it is used. The embedded social effect and function of using slang will be researched and discussed in order to show why slang deviates from standard language and why it is used.I have chosen to look at how slang works within a given culture (the USA) because in Denmark, due to an excessive exposure to American television, films and music, we are heavily subjected to American- English language media which may give us a greater consciousness of the English language. From a translation studies’ point of view, slang is interesting because of its connotations in its source culture.Slang seems to be connected to the culture in which it is created, so how are slang words and expressions transferred into another language and culture and does the transfer affect the possibility to maintain the use of slang in the translation? In the world of translation studies, research into the translation of slang seems somewhat limited. The reason may be that slang is largely considered a colloquial phenomenon which reduces the genres of communication in which it can appear. More specifically, slang is most likely to be translated in connection with slang style of teenagers, in the form of texting.CHAPTER II. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONA. Theory of TranslationThe acknowledgement of translation theory as a scientific discipline is usually attributed to J. S. Holmes. In his statement on the Symposium of Applied Linguistics (Copenhagen, 1972), he insisted on the establishment of translation theory as an independent field of research. The framework of this new scientific discipline was hard to determine because of its complex requirements and because it uses materials and results from many other linguistic disci plines.So, whoever wants to deal with the theory and poetics of translation should pay attention to the special requirements of similar disciplines and should be able to include their work in this new discipline. Because of all this, translation theory was considered an activity of secondary importance that relies on other people's thoughts and knowledge. The result of this was a diminishment of the value of research in this area.However, after years of undeserved treatment, the study of translation theory is gaining the place it should have had from the start. As an object of scientific research, the translation process attracts the attention of many scientific disciplines and methods, especially contrastive analysis. This kind of analysis can be successfully applied in monitoring structures and idioms of one language and comparing them to their semantic counterparts in another language.In this process we can also determine whether one particular phrase exists in only one language, or it is a common expression in several languages. In the final results of this study we can determine most important general and specific language differences. As a systematic scientific approach, with specific methods and goals, contrastive analysis was conceived in the United States in 1930’s, but it gained an important place in language science 40 years later. Of course, general linguistics with its theory and methodology supported this action.It is reasonable to assume that those who deal with translation as a science want linguistics to provide a practical contribution to translation, and to offer an improvement of practical use for those who learn foreign languages. Internal connections between linguistics and translation are quite obvious and convincingly confirmed by the generated models presented by generative grammar. However, although contrastive analysis has left important traces in the study of language, so far it hasn’t shown many important results in s ocial and cultural fields or practical solutions for the benefit of communication.According to contrastive analysis, the written text has a permanent structure, it requires focusing only from the standpoint of etymology and semantics, so it does not allow observation of life situations or events that occur in the language under the influence of the social and cultural environment. If we accept the terms mentioned above according to their original etymological meaning, it is clear that they define translation as the decision to say something to someone somewhere â€Å"over†, where people speak a different language and the message can not be understood without translation, transmission or inversion.To make it simple, translation represents transferring messages from one language to another. Translators often try to highlight the direct connection between translation and language. Professional translators usually insist on translating the semantic components of the text, but som etimes there’s a need for literal translation. Some often criticize the language structures that can be found in under-educated translators’ work. Although professional translators insist on the connection between translation and various fields of modern science, their theories can not offer enough evidence on the true importance of translation.Traditional scientific practice gives the activity of translation a secondary role and leaves it in the shadow of the importance of scientific research. When it comes to the translation process, we can say that a translator transfers information between the two languages. In fact, a translator transfers the contents of the text written in one language – also known as source language – into the expressions in the second language – also called the target language. This type of translation is called inter-language.Given the relationship between source language and target language, there can be  also intra-lan guage and inter-semiotic translation. Inter-language translation is a process in which the linguistic material from one language is transferred using material from some other language. Intra-language translation is the name for replacing one form of language material with another form of that same language. Inter-semiotic translation can be defined as the conversion of characters from the language system structure to another system of signs (for example, converting traffic regulations to traffic symbols).In this case, Translation's status as a mental activity of secondary importance is caused by the thought that in the transfer between two languages, translators are trying to shape other people’s thoughts, not their own. As a form of mental activity, translation represents the transformation of thoughts, feelings or desires, originally designed in one language, into the same kind of thought, feeling or desire in another language.B. Theory of CommunicationThe network is expect ed to process messages regardless of their contents. The perspective of the communication network therefore is different from that of the communicators. Only by operating at a next, that is, receiving interface, can the substance of the message be reconstructed and further processed. This next interface may be a (human) receiver or another differentiation of the network. As the differentiation changes, the message is expected to have another situational meaning (Granovetter 1985).The substance of communication can only be reconstructed if the communication systems are sufficiently complex for packaging the original signal. The original substance of the message, however, remains an assumption at the receiving end and decoding is based on theoretical assumptions. Although this may in practice be taken for granted, all sense of an original communality is recognizable as based on a specific coding, for example, in terms of basic affections. At the level of the social system, the communi cation of information not only transmits, but also translates and potentially transforms the expected information content.The full formalization of the substance of communication in terms of messages expected to contain information was accomplished by Shannon's (1948) mathematical theory of communication. From this perspective, information is content-free and equated with uncertainty; it is formalized in terms of binary digits or bits. When the uncertainty is complete, the system is assumed to be â€Å"dead† in a formal sense. A system can only process information, that is, communicate, as long as the expected information is not complete but contained within a communication. A communication system communicates with other communication systems.The latter provide contexts insofar as they communicate, that is, insofar as these systems are neither completely certain (â€Å"fixed†) nor completely uncertain (â€Å"dead†). Thus, a model of co-variation and remaining va riation in otherwise orthogonal dimensions can be formalized (Leydesdorff 1994). By differentiating the systems suppress the co-variation and tend to become nearly decomposable (Simon 1973). Whereas the covariation between two systems (A and B) is mutually determined, the remaining variation provides a structure over time in the one system (A) that is a latent condition for the coevolving system (B).From the perspective of the latter system (B), the structure (in A) can also be considered as redundancy or failing information. Therefore, structure is latent from this perspective. The covariations provide windows at which the systems share information mutually. The remaining variations are based on the recursive code of the communication over time and remain internal to each of the co-evolving systems. In the case of a dually layered communication medium like human language (see above), the same communication can be nearly decomposable in one dimension while firmly related in another. For example, we may agree despite a deep misunderstanding in terms of the information exchange, while one is also able to disagree about a given meaning when one fully agrees about the underlying exchange. Thus, a two-dimensional communication medium allows for differentiation and integration at the same time. The operation has become complex in itself. With increasing differentiation the system has to improve on its internal operation of integration because of the risk of otherwise falling apart from an excess of differentiation.Keeping this balance under the pressure of increasing uncertainty can be considered as the driving force for developing communicative competences in a communication system. The communicative competences are expected to be differentiated in the case of inter-human communication. Whereas the substance of social communication (i) is packaged, the communicative competencies tend also to become formalized. The social network system, however, remains structurally coupled to human agency in the substantive dimension.As long as one maintains Luhmann's assumption that human agency has to be the substantive carrier of the reflexive translation at the node, the social system cannot be completely virtual. One has to abandon the complete idealization in the historical case since observable reproduction has to be realized as one of the subdynamics of otherwise virtual networks. In this respect, sociology is different from the study of artificial systems. The historical instantiations contain the fingerprints of the social system's reproduction.Institutional dynamics exhibit codifications of communication that have been useful hitherto to the extent that they have been institutionalized. These â€Å"real life† phenomena are part of the social system as are we ourselves, that is, as subdynamics which can be invoked. In other words: human agency is structurally coupled to the social system, but only along one of the two dimensions of inter-huma n communication at each time. The other dimension is the way our communication is processed as a message. Along this dimension, the expectation is that we are only operationally coupled, since operational coupling allows for differentiation.The social system operates in terms of expectations (that is, uncertainties) and expectations concerning expectations (that is, meaningful selections). This differentiation in the communication provides parallel channels in the medium that the network system has available for propelling the communication. Language supports this dual-layeredness in the communication by providing a means of codification of the relation between the message and the information. The interactions among the two layers provide the system with variation that can recursively be selected as meaningful.For example, one is able to play with the meanings and the functions of communications. Furthermoe, one is sometimes able to control some of the selections by improving one's own communicative competences. Although each of us is able to select individually by providing meaning to some information and not to other, the reflections are socially distributed and hence they contain also an update value for the network behind the backs of the participants involved. In each communication, one degree of freedom may be hidden hyperreflexively or it can be made available to the communication, that is, infrareflexively.When the socially distributed reflections can be communicated, they are provided with situational meaning. The latter interaction is expected to interact with the not-yet communicated layer of reflections, and by generating this new variation the system propels itself. On the side of the human agency involved, this configuration provides us with opportunities for building niches within the system or, in Habermas' terminology, with options for improving the quality of life, for example, by fine-tuning communicative competencies to the exigencies of th e communicated culture.C. Theory of Slang LanguageThe definition of slang can be found in literature researching slang. Unlike dictionaries, whose main focus is to provide the general outline of a lexical item, but cannot elaborate on too many aspects due to a restriction on the space available, the specialized literature presented in this paragraph presents more in-depth research on slang and has a different approach to how to define slang.In her book Slang & Sociability in which she researches the use of slang among college students in the USA, English professor Connie Eble presents her own definition of slang: â€Å"Slang is an ever changing set of colloquial words and phrases that speakers use to establish or reinforce social identity or cohesiveness in society at large† (Eble 1996: 11). Eble’s definition differs significantly from the definitions presented in the dictionaries. While she agrees that slang is colloquial, Eble’s definition highlights the socia l aspects of slang which the dictionaries either ignore or do not find relevant to explain.According to Eble, slang thus seems to serve a purpose which is the establishment of social identity for the speaker and the people with whom they are interacting. Michael Adams agrees and says that slang serves to fill the following purposes: to identify members of a group, to change the level of discourse in the direction of informality, and to oppose established authority (Adams 2009: 16). Adams’ and Eble definitions show that slang is not just a set of words/phrases used by particular groups, but that it is something that are used by people to establish groups.The difference between these two notions is that slang can be used by anyone with the aim of wanting to establish group identity and to oppose established authority. Eble mentions Dumas and Lighter who proposes four identifying criteria for slang (Dumas & Lighter 1978 14-16 in Eble 1996: 11-12): 1. Its presence will markedly l ower, at least for the moment, the dignity of formal or serious speech or writing. 2. Its use implies the user’s familiarity either with the referent or with that less statusful or less responsible class of people who have such familiarity and use the term.3. It is a tabooed term in ordinary discourse with persons of higher social status or greater responsibility. 4. It is used in place of the well-known conventional synonym, especially in order (a) to protect the user from the discomfort caused by the conventional item or (b) to protect the user from the discomfort or annoyance of further elaboration. Dumas & Lighter say that when something fits at least two of the criteria, a linguistically sensitive audience will react to it in a certain way.This way, which cannot be measured, is the ultimate identifying characteristic of true slang. This shows that the use of slang is a negotiation between the speaker and the listener, because the speaker wants to convey something with th e use of slang which the listener must acknowledge. Adams acknowledges this and says that it is not a word itself that makes something slang, but rather the extrinsic feature of its use adapted by speakers to very precise human social and aesthetic needs and aspirations (Adams 2009: 48).Thus, the four criteria show that slang goes far beyond just being a lexical item. Moreover, all four criteria seem to focus on the social implications of using slang and the consciousness of shared knowledge between speaker and other participants. Dumas & Lighter imply that slang is used to change the level of formality from formal and serious speech towards informality, which also was what was suggested in the dictionary definitions and by Adams and Eble The objective of using sets of slang words and expressions is to achieve something on a social level.The speaker uses slang in order to achieve social dynamics with the people to whom he/she is speaking and slang outlines social space, and attitude s towards slang helps identify and construct social groups and identity. (Adams 2009:57). This means that when you use slang, you expose yourself, your ideas and your attitude as to how you want to perceive the people with whom you are interacting, and how you want these people to perceive you, while you rely on the people with whom you are speaking to be able to infer what you mean.From this follows that slang is not a language as such as implied in some of the dictionary  definitions mentioned in the previous paragraph, but rather a set of words and expressions in a given language used to create group dynamics, because slang is used within a given language to establish a difference between standard language and slang. The difference is not so much in the words themselves, but in the intended effect of using the words. The switch from standard language to slang implies informal settings and helps determining group dynamics. In the words of Eble, people use slang â€Å"when they want to be creative, clear 2 A form of e. g. English which does not include evident non-standard usage of the language† (Hamaida 2007: 3).Translating the use of slang – A study of microstrategies in subtitling with a view to researching the transfer of the use of slang from source text to target text with I Love You, Man as empirical example, including a study of the function of slang and acceptable to a select group† (Eble 1998: 19). In addition, slang is ephemeral. Slang changes constantly and it is the constant notion of what to use and what not to use that creates group identity. Eble says that â€Å"sharing and maintaining a constantly changing in-group vocabulary aids group solidarity and serves to include and exclude members† (Eble 1998: 119).The members are those who understand not only the word said by a slang user, but also know what the intention of using the word is. In this way, slang operates like fashion: You always need to keep up with the l atest trends and if you do not, you are not as fashionable as other slang users are, and you must know how to respond to slang and to show whether you are ‘in-crowd’ or ‘out-crowd’ (Ibid: 121). What still needs to be explained is what makes a given word appear slang to listeners.As we saw above, Lighter and Dumas suggested that a slang term is taboo when used around people that do not belong to your group and that slang is a synonym to a conventional word in the standard language used to avoid having to protect the user of the word from discomfort from having to elaborate on the word or to use the real word. This tells us that slang has an effect on both speaker and listener, and that slang is not applicable in all settings. Adams mentions that slang is â€Å"casual, racy, vivid, irreverent, and playful elements [that] rebels against the standard (whether mildy, wildly or in between)† (Adams 2009: 9).The attributes suggested by Adams proposes that sl ang can be mild and casual in its appearance just as it can be racy and irreverent. Essentially, Adams believes that slang is used to rebel against standard language, but that the reasons for doing so does not have to be to show bad behaviour or obvious irreverence. As we saw in the dictionary definitions above, slang seems to be listed as being not polite and offensive, but Adams believes that slang can just as well be playful and a joking way of rebelling against standard language to mark the difference between e.g. parents and children (in-crowd versus out-crowd), but the children do not necessarily have wicked intentions with the use of slang.Rather, slang is used to create a social line between children and parents/adults (Ibid: 32). Of course, context comes into play when we think of slang. Adams mentions that slang is not slang until someone recognises it to be slang (Adams 2009: 62). This means that listeners must be able to recognise the speaker’s intent to break wit h established linguistic convention and to determine that what they are hearing is slang.CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONThe term of using slang texting commonly can be learning trough chat with someone aboard. From the research result, we could see that student A who is often having chat with someone abroad can translate the text source appropriately. While student B is unfamiliar with slang texting, it is because student B rarely having chat with someone abroad. Knowing slang language is good for people who want to be an active English speaker. By mastering slang language, so we can take easily to communicate with the English native speaker.